The Capitulations Of Christopher Columbus - 874 Words

Christopher Columbus was an Italian-born man who managed to win the favor and funding of the Spanish monarchy. With this funding, Columbus led the most well-known voyage in human history: the voyage to the New World in 1492. This passage laid the foundation for future colonizations and, eventually, the creation of many nations in the New World. However, this voyage would not have gone past conceptualization if the Spanish monarchy decided against supporting Columbus and his exploration. Despite Columbus’ lack of Spanish descent, the Spanish monarchy aided his travels. While a variety of factors affected the monarchy’s decision, the primary reasons were Columbus’ experience in navigation, the assistance that Columbus received from Jewish†¦show more content†¦In fact, Jewish supporters played a crucial role in Columbus’ path to Spanish acceptance. Jewish supporters developed a multitude of useful navigation tools, such as the astrolabe, which Avraha m Zacuto developed. Jewish supporters also developed other tools used by Columbus, such as the cross - staff and the â€Å"quadrant Judaicus.† Furthermore, the clearest evidence of Jewish support comes in the form of Abraham Senior and Isaac Abravanel. Abraham Senior played an essential role in the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and assisted Isabella in uniting Spain. This assistance gained Senior an important title for Spanish Jews, and provided plenty of funds for Senior to pledge his to Columbus upon hearing the Italian’s plan. In addition, Abravanel, also possessing a high court standing, contributed a considerable sum of money to aid Columbus’ cause. Abraham Senior applied pressure to the Spanish monarchy through his funding, and implored that Columbus receive money for the trip. Another patron, Luis de Santangel, was a baptized Jew that assisted in pressuring the monarchy due to his status as a member of a wealthy and influential family. Santangel we nt as far as imploring that Her Majesty has an audience with Columbus, a request that she accepted (Peerage). Her Majesty’s acceptance of the request provided a stepping stone for Columbus in his path to Spanish support. Without the Jewish backing, Columbus would not have gained the funding ofShow MoreRelatedEuropean Colonization : Christopher Columbus And Native Americans Essay1127 Words   |  5 Pagesbrought was death. Bartolomà © de Las Casas noted â€Å"so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery, and the mines† (Effects of European Colonization: Christopher Columbus and Native Americans). This was primarily due to European domesticated animals such as: pigs, sheep, horses, cows, and goats. To create a great epidemic of diseases America had never witnessed before. Horrible diseases which the ingenious population had no immunity for, smallpox, typhus, influenceRead MoreThe Impact Of European Expeditions On The American Regi ons Essay1203 Words   |  5 Pagesfood, religion, metal tools, and language. Starting around 1492, Columbus was trying to find a faster route to Asia. Instead, he found an entirely different continent that would later be named America. One of the most notable things they brought was death. Bartolomà © de Las Casas noted â€Å"so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery, and the mines† (Effects of European Colonization: Christopher Columbus and Native Americans). This was primarily due to European domesticatedRead More Christopher Columbus Motivations to Sail West for the Indies3756 Words   |  16 PagesChristopher Columbus Motivations to Sail West for the Indies Christopher Columbus lived in an age of Moslem expansion in the east. With the fall of Constantinople in 1453, direct land routes to the Indies were closed to European merchants and traders, thus creating the need to find a sea route to the Indies. Portugal had spent years sailing the coast of Africa to reach the Indies, but Columbus thought he had a better way: sailing west. With the defeat of the Moors in 1492 Queen IsabellaRead More4 Voyages Of Christopher Columbus3767 Words   |  16 PagesMondejar 1 Arnold Mondejar Professor Afzali Spanish History 127 04 December, 2014 4 Voyages of Christopher Columbus Summary Nothing in human progress is ever achieved with unanimous consent. Individuals that are enlighten before the others, are condemned to pursue that light despite the perception of others. There was a time when the new world did not exist, and the sun set in the west where no man dare to have dreamt to venture to. Beyond that, was considered to be infinity, and of possibilitiesRead MoreColumbus vs. Hitler3500 Words   |  14 Pages When Columbus set sail for Asia with the intent of establishing a trade monopoly between the vibrant culture of Asia and Spain and discovered the New World, along with it came the discovery of the Indians and a new trade and labor opportunity began to take place. Columbus discovery of the New World has been controversial. There are those who wish to honor him and therefore feel that the accusations concerning his crime of genocide are revisions of history. Blinded by greed Columbus turned intoRead More Stereotypical Images of Native Americans Essay2011 Words   |  9 PagesStereotypical Images of Native Americans The encounter of Christopher Columbus with the indigenous people of the Americas and the Caribbean would ultimately set in motion the destruction of Native American life and culture as it had existed for thousands of years. Images and stereotypes of the Native Americans were indelibly etched into the minds of the Europeans and we struggle today to eradicate these harmful portrayals. When Columbus arrived in the Caribbean in 1492, he was greeted by the nativesRead MoreCatal Hyuk2725 Words   |  11 PagesGreat Lakes Gulf of Mexico Andes Mountains Rocky Mountains Caribbean Sea Ohio River Sierra Madre Mountain CHAPTER 23: Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections IDENTITIES: Vasco Da Gama Compass,Astrolab Christopher Columbus Circumnavigation Trading=post Empires VOC â€Å"Columbian Exchange† Lateen Sails Bartolomeu Dias James Cook British East India Co. Prince Henry the Navigator Manila Galleons MAPS: Portugal Spain EnglandRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesTarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006). 32. David Long, The Hajj Today: A Survey of Contemporary Makkah Pilgrimage (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1979), 127; Michael Christopher Low, â€Å"Empire of the Hajj: Pilgrims, Plagues, and Pan-Islam under British Surveillance, 1865–1926† (M.A. thesis, Georgia State University, 2007), 79. 33. J. William Leasure and Robert A. Lewis, â€Å"Internal Migration in Russia in the Late Nineteenth

The Evolving Buckman Family Essay - 1517 Words

The Evolving Buckman Family The characters of the film Parenthood, all come to face many difficult encounters that cause disruption within each subfamily. This pushes the Buckman family to their limits and causes each subfamily to evolve and better themselves. The family includes Gil Buckman, a perfectionist and a father of three children; Kevin, the oldest; Taylor, the middle child; Justin, the youngest; and Karen, Gils Wife. Another Subfamily includes Helen; Gils sister, a single mom with two children; Gary, the youngest child; Julie the oldest; Tod Higgins, Julie s boyfriend/ husband. This paper will address each of the two Buckman subfamilies evolution, the dynamics of the change, strategies for coping with change, and how each family member handles and adapts to change in their families. Evolution of family is important as it affects how we treat others down the road. For the Buckman family we get to observe how they evolve over such a short period of time with one another. Fra nk Buckman the father of Gil, Helen, Susan, and Larry affects his kids more than he could ever imagine, as we watch the movie we can observe that Frank has affected Gil, the oldest and the most. This makes Gil grow up wanting to be absolutely nothing like his father towards his children, but a disability strikes close to home he suddenly feels as though he is just like his own father. While to Larry, Frank s youngest child, his dad has always there for him even if that means spending aShow MoreRelatedCommon Knowledge : How Companies Thrive by Sharing What They Know56617 Words   |  227 PagesChevron; Rick Longbrake and Bob Wacker at Texas Instruments; Nick Milton and Kent Greenes at British Petroleum; Johnathan Ungerleider, Ruddy Ruggles, Ralph Poole, Dale Neef, and Mare Rasmussen at Ernst Young; Cheryl Lamb and Melissie Rumizen at Buckman Labs; Candice Phelan at Lockheed Martin; Raleigh Amos, Fred Dkystra, Tim Horst, and Doug Omichinski at Bechtel; James T. Stensvaag and Ed Guth rie of the U.S. Army; and Stephen Denning and Seth Kahan at The World Bank. Page x I have had long-termRead MoreLegal and Professional Issues in Nursing4141 Words   |  17 Pagesindividual personalities. Illnesses which are considered life-threatening in particular can really require treatment that is complex and physical nevertheless, more tellingly, can awaken compound emotional, mental and spiritual issues for both patient, family and nurse. Experiencing such situations helps nurses to cope with these matters in upcoming, however there is also danger that experience by itself can lead to customary exercise. Reflective exercise is one particular way to use experience to promoteRead MoreLinkedin Case Study15064 Words   |  61 Pages2003), Facebook (2004), and Twitter (2006). Dozens of other sites had also formed in markets around the world. Social networking typically involved individual users creating profiles of themselves. Profiles could include a user’s name, home location, family members, friends, schools attended, employment information, personal photos, videos, hobbies, interests, or almost anything else that could be posted on a web site. After creating them, many users frequently updated their profiles by adding or deletingRead MoreManagement and Rolls Access Code14663 Words   |  59 Pagesreflect the changing needs of organizations and society as a whole. We’ll also introduce important trends and issues that managers currently face, in order to link the past with the future and to demonstrate that the field of management is still evolving. ( Go to www.prenhall.com/rolls) HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MANAGEMENT Organized endeavors directed by people responsible for planning, organizing, leading, and controlling activities have existed for thousands of years. The Egyptian pyramids andRead MoreMobile Payment18262 Words   |  74 Pages Mobile payments in Asia Pacific Introduction M-payments are payments made using mobile handsets and other devices, either to directly purchase or to authorise payment for goods and services. Such devices are playing an increasing and evolving role in the wider development of electronic payment systems around Asia Pacific. This report considers how m-payment business models are developing, who the key players are along the value chain, and how these value chains differ according

Oliver Twist Essay Example For Students

Oliver Twist Essay Charles Dickens classic novel Oliver Twist was written in the 19th century it provides a valuable insight towards the life of the British during the Victorian times. Through the character of Nancy, Dickens is able to advance the plot and send out a social message. She is a useful contrast against the other character because there is no one like her. Her character is important because in the Victorian times there was a huge divide between men and women. Women did not have as much say as men. They were just expected to serve the men. In the novel Nancy does not serve the men she does what she has to do to survive. We are first introduced to Nancy in chapter 9 but our view of her is coloured by the innocence of Oliver; he believes them to be very nice girls. Nancy and her friends demeanour are described with a great deal of ambiguous adjectives such as free and agreeable which could mean two things, free spirited or free sexually. We are later introduced to the irony of her not being free. She is controlled by Bill. She is also described as stout and hearty, not very pretty and having colour in their faces, Oliver twist art. This is a contrast to the devilish character of Fagin. By seeing the difference ion physical description we can tell that Nancy and Fagin are going to be two very different characters. The readers get the impression that Nancy is a prostitute when Oliver asks if she has gone work and Fagin replies Yes they do, my dear, depend on it. At the time that the book was written prostitutes were considered the lowest people in society. However the reader becomes aware that she is what she is for necessity rather than choice. Even though she is part of the underworld she is also a victim of it. By chapter 13 Nancy is contrasted with the dominating Bill. She is controlled by him and this evokes strong feelings of sympathy. Bill is an aggressive, powerful and demanding character. He uses force to get what he wants. Nancy is in love with him but she does not want to stay with him because he is ruining her life. She is similar to Oliver in highlighting how evil Fagin and Bill really are by contrasting with her good natured spirit. Furthermore, we learn the importance from a plot-development perspective; she is the one that collects Oliver from the court. Nancys connection with Oliver and her similar history to him helps the reader understand Olivers plight. This is very significant as Oliver is the main character and the book revolves around him. The reader is encouraged to hope that Olivers future is not like Nancys although they had a similar up bringing, as well as allowing the reader to see Nancy as someone who once shared the innocence of a child like Oliver. Importantly in chapter 16 the reader learns that Nancy knows that her work is wrong and she does not enjoy it. This sets her aside from Bill and Fagin because she a strong moral conscience whereas the others dont. Chapter 16 is important in the book because in the chapter the reader learns that Nancy is mental and physical victim of Bill. Her unhappiness with her situation is shown when she says to Fagin I thieved for you when I was a child not half his age, and Ive thieved for you ever since, dont you know it It is my living. And youre the wretch that drove me to them long ago, and thatll keep me there, day and night, day and night, DAY AND NIGHT The reader feels sympathy for such women of the Victorian times because such a brutal atmosphere was part of everyday life. Joyce and John Cheever were two influential writers of the late 1800's and early 1900's EssayWhen the audience are first introduced to Fagin, Dickens uses very harsh adjectives to describe him: very old shrivelled Jew, whose villainous-looking and repulsive face was obscured by a quantity of matted red hair. Dickens illustrates a sinister character within the first line of description about Fagin. This shows that Dickens is criticizing this character obviously, and I interpretated this, as Fagin must have some corruption within him.  Dickens does not depict the evil aspects of human nature of Fagin in the introduction. But he uses very harsh adjectives to describe him, which suggests he his evil. As the novel progresses the reader discovers how cunning and manipulative Fagin is but when the reader is introduced to this character he appears loveable. In the famous musical Oliver by Lionel Bart, Fagin is introduced, as a loving and generous man, who is not under the influence of Monks, as the character does not exists. However in Alan Bleasdales adaptation the audience have clear understanding that Fagin is under the influence of Monks, which is why he appears kind and generous, to influence Oliver to be a thief. These two adaptations are very different, Alan Bleasdales interpretation has captured Fagin as a more realistic character and Lionel Barts version has captured him as a loveable rogue. Dickens has depicted Bumble as an evil character in the introduction; however, Fagin appears to be kind and generous in the introduction. As the story progresses it concentrates more on Fagin, and Bumble is introduced later in the book.  The reader discovers that Fagin has a strong desire for materialism: His eyes glistened as he raised the lid and looked in. Dickens has carefully chosen the use of language, he has used a powerful adjective: glistened, which illustrates that Fagin has a desire for whats in the box: Jewellery. Dickens has depicted the evil aspect of human nature through Fagin as Dickens has clearly expressed Fagins attachment to materialism.

Theories and Values System free essay sample

The objective of the theory is to guide us to make decisions and judgments about actions in certain situations, i. e to try to determine what we and other people ought to do. We not only act as an agent, but also as witness, adviser, teacher, judge, and critic in morality. (we= agent moral). Social Morality Theory The words ethics (ethos) and moral (more which mean customs, habit, courtesy, character, etc. , are connected with regulations and standards followed by society. It is proper we use social morality theory (or traditional/conventional morality) to explain the concept of ethics in a society. Member of a society normally observe a system of moral standards with general ethical principles related to moral norms. According to M. G. Velasquez (1992), these moral standards have many functions in society. 1) The moral standards system in the society identifies situations so that each person wards off self-interest to strengthen a system of behavior that brigs benefit to self as well as to other people. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories and Values System or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With proper moral standards, members of the society will co-operate and help each other so that there is freedom and justice. When members of the society internalize all the moral standards and live by them, a system of behaviors that ensures the interests of all emerges. 2) Secondly, moral standards serve to resolve conflict in the society by giving justifications that are acceptable to the public as bases for action. This theory is a theory which attempts to relate moral standards, regulation of society, and the countries or universal law with ethical concepts. Stress the individual’s responsibility to follow orders from an authoritative body. This means that to strengthen the system of moral standards, the atmosphere of society becomes rather bureaucratic. Also pays special attention to the interest and benefits of society, not the interest of individual. However, a society that is closely controlled by regulations, particularly regulations that restrict the freedom of members of the society will result in a dogmatic and authoritative.

Essay Sample on Developing Strategies to Address Strategic Issues

Essay Sample on Developing Strategies to Address Strategic Issues Every organization needs to adapt to changes in the business environment. In so doing a strategy has to be formulated that will aid in the transformation of the business. This requires thinking and analyzing the current business state compared with the targeted state that the management desires. The strategies instituted must be in line with the business mandate and must be able to create public value. Strategies instituted may involve continuation of specific practice or the complete cessation of the same. The organization strategy may also be targeting the organization in its entirety or specific departments or franchise. There are various considerations that can be made while making a company strategy, these include: The new capabilities and skills that will be needed in achieving the desired target. It would also be important to consider how such a strategy would affect the workforce composition. The desired results after the implementation of the strategy. The entire structure of the business enterprise would be considered taking in the reconfigurations needed to deliver the intended target and goals. Characteristics of effective business strategies It is common for individuals to assume that setting business strategy is a simple activity yet this is quite wrong in the context of the organization. It is important for top level management to understand the set procedures for a successful strategic planning. The strategy instituted must be followed by action. Employees need to understand the new strategy being employed in order for them to realize that the whole organization is needed to capture the set goals. The management must ensure that they consolidate the department action plans into a full organization plan. It is important that every unit of the organization sets its own strategy while the management team synchronizes these plans to form a complete strategy for the organization. The top management team must be fully involved in the strategic planning. There are different types of strategies employed by organizations. This include: Coordinate departmental activities- the different departments and sections of the organization are run by managers who ensure employees in that particular unit are operating under the same target. Develop distinctive advantages- developing competitive advantage is important in establishing a successful organization core competencies. This includes attaining economic resources at a cheaper price than other competitors. Marking market niches- this involves conducting a comprehensive economic analysis and identifying the unique consumer demand trends. Monitor product strategies- organizations must review business-level strategies in their daily operations. This allows the organizations to be flexible in the business environment. Vision Office Systems, Inc. The company is based in Charlotte and has over 150 years of experience in office equipments supply and dealership. The company boasts of technicians who are factory certified. The company supplies state of the art machines for the modern hi-tech office. The company lays emphases on ensuring customers are satisfied with their services. The products supplied by the company include Ricoh, Kyocera, Samsung and Canon. Strategic issues It is evident that not all issues under the strategic plan are strategic. The method used to determine whether an issue is strategic includes: Determining whether the issue is likely to hold an effect on the way the organization conducts its mission. The issue must be one that the organization may expect to have influence. The issue must generate a response of pure organizational commitment on resources. The strategic plan of Vision Office Systems Mission Statement The company has put great emphasis on satisfying customers’ needs. The company ensures that communication between the customer and business is maintained. Strategic Analysis This involves evaluating the existing business scenario and the future plan and vision. The company has always hired service technicians that are fully certified. This ensures that the services offered to their customers are of high quality. The company has also dedicated fully its operations to printer, copier and the facsimile business segment. This has ensured that the services are more specialized and hence easier to implement. The management team ensured that the response time to their customers does not exceed four hours and that customers are not directed to voicemail. Strategy for attaining the plan The company believes in supplying the best office equipments available in the market. That is why the company has dedicated to only supply brands such as Ricoh, Kyocera and Samsung. These are the best known and trusted office equipment brands. Customers normally tend to be loyal to the most reliable brands and not necessarily the cheapest. The corporation has gone further to providing a 5 year performance guarantee. This is advantageous in pulling more customers since they would want to purchase equipments which can be serviced in case of a breakdown. Strategic issues are technically significant in the planning process. The entire plan can have a positive impact to the business through increasing employee morale and the number of customers. Strategic planning enables businesses maintain a strong position in the industry. It is imperative for Vision office to uphold their plan and not deviate. The management needs to familiarize the employees on new practices they need to employee. At CustomWritings.com you can buy an essay paper online, written from scratch. We hire highly qualified writers to provide students with original essays and research papers of superior quality.

Dont Hate Me Because Im Beautiful

Dont Hate Me Because Im Beautiful Don’t Hate Me Because I’m Beautiful Don’t Hate Me Because I’m Beautiful By Mary When it comes to writing, looks matter just as much as substance. Don’t get me wrong, there is no substitute for high quality writing. But great writing poorly presented will be just as ineffective as bad writing. Several years ago when I was working in an advertising agency, I received a resume from someone who was applying for a copywriting job. The resume had chocolate (I hope!) smudges all over it. That sent a very clear message to me about how meticulous this person would be when it came to being careful about the appearance of work that went out of his office. Needless to say, I moved on to the next applicant. Recently I was working with a young lady who was looking for an entry-level clerical job. She told me that she recently completed a resume writing class and proudly showed me a very nicely written and formatted resume printed on paper that was completely covered with yellow daisies. This paper might have been perfect for an invitation to a garden party, but for a resume it was completely inappropriate. The scary thing is that her resume was approved by the person who taught the class. We do judge books by their cover. We do it every day, and we do it without being aware that we are doing it. We also judge letters, resumes, and memos by the way they are formatted and presented. What message is the appearance of your writing sending about you? Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the General category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 Types of Narrative Conflict40 Fish IdiomsCapitalizing Titles of People and Groups

Is the 'Kolb cycle' helpful or a hindrance in planning a church's Essay

Is the 'Kolb cycle' helpful or a hindrance in planning a church's strategy for Christian education of adults - Essay Example The experimentation stage involves planning out and implementing what they have learnt. The cycle attempts to explain learning behaviours in group environments, and how the group members support one another to learn. At the core of the cycle’s understanding is the belief that learning is solely based on internal cognitive processes (Kolb 1984, pp. 43-44). The cycle considers an individual to be effectively learning when they; experience a scenario; observe and reflect on their experience; reviewed their knowledge based on the observations and reflections; and test their new knowledge to have new experiences. In essence, effective learning involves an individual going through all the four sequential stages in a never ending cycle. While describing the four stages in the learning cycle, Kolb also identified four types of students based on the students’ response to the cycle. The first type includes those who prefer observation and theoretical solution of problems at the expense of taking action. The second type includes those who organise ideas into logical formats. The third type includes those who apply theories and ideas in practical problem solving. The fourth type includes those who rely on intuition at the expense of logic in solving problems (Kolb 1999, p. 47; McLeod 2010). Each learner will show a strong inclination and preference for a specific learning type approach, and differences in the ability to switch between different types. Learners with a clearly preferred learning style will tend to learn more effectively if the learning experience is oriented towards their preference. Tensions can develop when teachers and students use different learning types in the same setting. If possible, it is imperative that teachers identify their students learning style and facilitate learning environments that build on their strengths, though the students must develop abilities

Economic issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Economic issue - Essay Example The progressive widening of this gap occasions the government to take an active role in addressing emerging issues in that regard. Wealth concentration to a few people while the rest of the population battles poverty and middle class-related social and economic issues only worsens the state of the larger economy. In this respect, it is important to review the minimum upwards. Finally yet importantly, putting more money into people’s pockets will ultimately improve life standards in diverse and dynamic ways. More people across America will realize improved purchasing power, consumption of goods and services will increase, and reliance on unemployment benefits will reduce as more people enter the job market. Even though minimum wage debates have proven to be contentious, it is important to consider individual and/or household benefits that an increase in minimum wage will provide to the American population. Morath, Eric. White House: State, Local Minimum-Wage Efforts to Help 7 Million Workers. The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 12, 2014. Web. 15 Sept. 2014.

Student Services and Student Success Essay Example for Free

Student Services and Student Success Essay The literature review tackles on the research problem: â€Å"School Services: Its Role in and Contribution to College Student Success†. It includes researches done on school services and student success. The organization of this review is on the order of answering the research questions. A SUCCESSFUL STUDENT The first research question is: What are the indicators of college student success? The review will look into (a) the definition of student success, and (2) how schools particularly in higher educational institutions measure student success. What does it take to be successful? As what students would always ask as soon as they enter college life. But how do we describe a successful student? According to Zepke, Leach, and Butler (2011) student success is â€Å"variously understood as engagement, persistence, completion, graduation and entry to employment† (p. 227). But not merely limited to achieving high scores in an exam but to put in a deeper sense, success covers a wider aspect in a student’s life. In the article, The Thriving Quotient by Shreiner (2010) common notion equates student success with academic performance and persistence to graduation. She further emphasizes that for those â€Å"who have worked extensively with students know that there is more to a successful college experience than grades and graduation† (p. 3). There is an empirical factor that drives students to succeed. There is the existence of a thriving quotient, where thriving is â€Å"describing the experiences of college students who are fully engaged intellectually, socially, and emotionally† (p. 4). These thriving students will have a deeper sense of fulfillment that extends beyond academics but with other aspects of learning as well. This will allow them to gain more than mere conceptual ideas but experiential learning too. And in order to help institutions measure their effectiveness in providing students with worthwhile college experiences, she developed an instrument that measures thriving. Analyses indicated that thriving is â€Å"indeed a distinct construct comprised of: (1) engaged learning, (2) academic determination, (3) positive perspective, (4) diverse citizenship, and (5) social connectedness† (p. 5). Institutions, therefore, play an important role in ensuring that students perspective in life is positive, â€Å"students with a positive perspective keep trying; even when progress is slow or difficult, they remain confident of their ability to achieve the final outcome and therefore persist in the face of challenges† (p. 7). Moreover, the students should be given an opportunity to â€Å"envision a bright future for themselves, and this image serves to motivate them to persevere when the going gets tough† (p. 8). Therefore, higher institutions should focus on how students thrive, more than just surviving college life since it connotes a deeper understanding of student success. On the other hand, in Fostering Student Success in the Campus Community, Kramer and Assoc. (2007) explain, student success â€Å"takes on a variety of forms and is related to a multitude of characteristics, conditions, indicators, outcomes, and institution-specific factors† (p. 433). It takes on different variations depending on the circumstances of the student. Each student has different needs and they face various types of deterrents for success. This implies that different approaches should be laid down and prepared to address these various needs. Another point, higher educational institution should not only look into graduation as their sole basis for student success but rather look into other indicators as well. Bailey (2006, as cited in Kramer, 2007) enumerates the following indicators: (a) student’s skills for work; (b) employment for the purpose of serving the society; (c) getting hired after completing coursework; (d) being financially literate; (e) engagement in civic works; (f) achieving basic general information; (g) licenses and certifications, and (g) continuing learning. These indicators will facilitate in assessing student success. Another important matter that needs to be factored in when we talk about student success is the role of assessment and evaluation of programs and services. This will help gauge the amount of learning that students receive from their academics and non-academic experience. Likewise, the institution will be able to tailor fit their service offerings based on these assessments. Certainly, there should be a drive to foster student success at all times. STUDENT SERVICES Every institution must provide for the needs of its students. They shall aspire to meet the demands of the changing times as well as the evolving kind of students that we have now. In order to do so, each institution is called to provide services to address these demands. This brings me to my second research question that is: What student services are expected to be provided by higher educational institutions? According to Arbuckle (1953), the need for student services is inevitable. He says, â€Å"Most college students are adolescents, and, even in an environment where they are understood and accepted, for almost every student there will be occasions when he will be in need of assistance† (p.1). This entails that each student is expecting help from any authority as soon as they step into the school. Furthermore, â€Å"every institution of higher learning needs a program of student services that is dedicated to the welfare of the individual student† (p. 2). The institution then has the responsibility to ensure that they provide services that will address the concern of all students. Needless to say, the programs and services of the institution should cater to the holistic development of the student –physically, socially, emotionally, and spiritually, as well as intellectually. Those services mentioned in the book are the following: â€Å"(a) admissions, (b) orientation, (c) counseling, (d) occupations, (e) health, (f) student aid, (g) religion, (h) housing and dining, (i) student activities, and (j) teaching† (p. 22). With each of these services addresses specific concerns that each student experience in school. For Kramer and Assoc. (2003), there are those services which are intended for the purpose of providing students with opportunities to enrich themselves through programs intended for personal development and learning. It is also intended to assist the student in their academic deficiencies, as well as to prevent future academic and personal difficulties. Finally, services will facilitate the students stay in the university as comfortably as possible. It is also important to note that an effective program and service engages the student both in the learning and assessment process. This involvement will provide the student an opportunity to reflect on its own performance and allows them to realize ways on how to deal with barriers that hamper their own success. The student should be given the chance to fully optimize the learning that is available both inside and outside of the classroom. In The role of student affairs and services in higher education: a practical manual for developing, implementing and assessing student affairs programmes and services the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO, 2002) clearly states that in an institution the office of student affairs is among one of those who provide critical programs and services to students. They have the task of providing highly effective and efficient services that enhances student learning likewise increase student retention and graduation rates. The student affairs practitioners are supposed to be knowledgeable with regard to dealing with students. They should have an in-depth knowledge of the uniqueness of each student, generally in all aspects as well as their behavior and motivation which are all critical factors that uphold student success. The manual â€Å"focuses on ways to build an effective student affairs and services operation that puts the student at the center of all efforts by supporting students in their academic endeavors and enhancing their personal, social, cultural, and cognitive development† (p. 2). Moreover, the manual presented different programs and services used in other countries as well. In light of the emerging student type, there came a need to establish programs and services which encompasses â€Å"recreation, cultural activities, sports, testing, orientation, career assistance, job placement, financial assistance, and disability services† (p.22). This later on were enhanced and made in collaboration with the academic units in order to produce an integrated student-centered programs and services. Hence, providing programs and services to students is an unending process. It continuously evolves as the students evolve themselves differently year in year out. Therefore, it is a necessity to constantly conduct assessment and evaluation of programs and services to check its applicability to the current set of students. In the Philippines, according to Memorandum Order no. 21, also known as â€Å"Guidelines on Student Affairs and Student Services,† of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED, 2006), states that in any university or school, the student affairs and services â€Å"are concerned with non-academic experiences of students to attain total student development† (p. 2). Just the same, the holistic development of a student should and always be the guiding principle in an institution. And in order to facilitate student development towards student success, an institution should provide the following services to its students: (A) Student welfare programs and services, include (1) information and orientation, (2) scholarships and financial assistance, (3) health, (4) guidance and counseling, (5) food, (6) career and placement, (7) safety and security, (8) student discipline, (9) student housing, (10) services for students with special needs, (11) international students services, (12) admission, (13) research, monitoring, and evaluation of student affairs and services. Then, (B) Student development programs and services, include (1) student organizations and activities, (2) student council/ government, (3) leadership training program, (4) student publication, (5) sports development programs, (6) cultural programs, (7) social and community involvement, and (8) multi-faith services. (pp. 5-10) All these programs and services are multi-faceted that are geared towards creating an institutional environment wherein each students’ experience are worthwhile. STUDENT SERVICES and STUDENT SUCCESS It is apparent that student services should be assessed or evaluated whether it contribute and pose a positive impact on the lives of the students most specifically in the attainment of success. For Morante (2003), assessment of academic and student services is essential. Assessment will enable the institution to identify whether their programs are effective and if it provides a positive impact on students. The function of which is: â€Å"(a) to focus on student learning outcomes (SLO’s),which includes processes, especially in seeking ongoing improvement, (b) to demonstrate and improve student learning and student success, and (c) to facilitate accreditation, accountability and institutional effectiveness † (p. 3). The third research question is: Which of these student services have been shown to positively contribute to student success? In what ways did it contribute? In the article of Chaney, Muraskin, Cahalan, and Goodwin (1998), they found that with the use of â€Å"Student Support Services (SSS)† (p.197), there were significant changes in the progress of disadvantaged student in higher education in the United States (U. S. ). They conducted a longitudinal study of the effect of SSS on retention. Clearly the â€Å"results confirm that retention programs should address both academic and social integration on campus† (p. 197). The SSS is one of the largest programs provided by the U. S. Department of Education to the following groups of people: â€Å"(a) low income, (b) first-generation college students, and (c) physically handicapped† (p. 198). The SSS is comprised of services which are specifically selected to cater to a certain group of people. It include, â€Å" counseling, tutoring, workshops, labs, cultural events, special services to handicapped students, and instructional courses† (p. 198) Some other important points tackled were participation, student integration and the amount of services provided as factors contributing to the positive effect of SSS to retention. Keep in mind that retention is likewise is attributed to student success; therefore, it can be qualified that the SSS program will have a positive impact on student success. The SSS program facilitated students’ capacity to stay in college by providing sufficient amount of help needed to succeed. To cite a specific example showing a significant and positive impact on student’s success is the study conducted by Lanasa, Olson, and Alleman (2007). They examined whether providing a resident hall within the campus would increase student engagement that will eventually lead to student success. Relatively, the on-campus residence hall may have helped students to have more time for outside of the classroom engagements. Nonetheless, the institution will still need to focus on other programs and services for the students that will form part the entire learning process of the student. On the other hand, institutions should also address the needs of all types of students. It is a reality that in every institution there are students who are â€Å"special†, those who are challenged in various ways. Capper, Frattura, and Keyes (2000), connotes that all people even those with special needs, have an equal opportunity in an institution to learn and succeed. They believe that these students â€Å"have a continuum of needs—physical, social, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual—that fluctuate and vary over time, depending on circumstances† (p 1). Then in order for these types of students to succeed, the institution should learn the fundamentals in addressing the students need and eventually unlocking all of his or her potential and capacity to learn. They taught students with special abilities by looking deeply into the specific need that needed attention. Programs were tailored-fit depending on a specific need the student has. Continuous monitoring and evaluation is done in order to ensure that students are able to follow and eventually learn. RELEVANCE OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE After going through all that was mentioned on student services and its role in and contribution to student success, I am convinced that indeed student services play an important, more so, critical role in promoting student success in higher education. Moreover, Drake (2005) in his article mentioned about the collaboration of academic and student affairs to boost student learning and success in the school. Basically, everybody in the institution has a role to play in assuring the success of a student both inside and outside the classroom. Furthermore, the institution should support programs and services that promote student learning and success. REFERENCES: Arbuckle, D. (1953). Student personnel services in higher education. US: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Capper, C. , Frattura, E. , Keyes, M. (2000). Meeting the needs of students of all abilities: How leaders go beyond inclusion. US: Corwin Press, Inc. Chaney, B. , Muraskin, L. , Cahalan, M. , Goodwin, D. (1998). Helping the progress of disadvantaged students in higher education: The federal student support services program. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 20 No. 3, 197-215. CHED. (2006). Guidelines on Student Affairs and Services Program. Retrieved August 10, 2011 from http://www. ched. gov. ph/chedwww/index. php/eng/Information/CHED-Memorandum-Orders/2006-CHED-Memorandum-Orders. Dale, P. and Drake, T. (2005) Connecting Academic and Student Affairs to Enhance Student Learning and Success. New Directions for Community Colleges, No. 131, 51-64. Kramer and Assoc. (2003) Student Academic Services. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Kramer and Assoc. (2007) Fostering student success in the campus community. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Lanasa, S. , Olson, E. Alleman, N. (2007). The impact of on-campus student growth on first-year student engagement and success. Research in Higher Education, Vol. 48, No. 8. doi: 10. 1007/s11162-007-9056-5. Morante, E. (2003). Assessing student services and academic support services. iJournal: Insight Into Student Services, Issue No. 4, 2-8. Schreiner, L. (2010). The â€Å"thriving quotient†: A new vision for student success. About Campus , 2-10. doi: 10. 1002. abc. 20016 UNESCO. (2002). The role of student affairs and services in higher education: a practical manual for developing, implementing and assessing student affairs programmes and services. Retrieved August 10, 2011 from http://unesdoc. unesco. org/images/0012/001281/128118e. pdf. Zepke, Nick, Leach, Linda, Butler, Philippa (2011). Non-institutional influences and student perceptions of success Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 36 Issue 2, 227-242.

Local Involvement :: Development, Farmers

One main issue about local involvement is how to integrate participatory principles in the present dominant top-down hierarchical extension system in developing countries. In the study about participatory extension approach in Vietnam, Minh et al. (2000) examine the potential and challenges to scale up several new participatory principles (participatory-based training methods, interactive training sessions, group-based sharing experience, practical learning, and learning-by-doing process) in the existing supply-driven extension system. They found that by the help of external support, the approach has been proved to be successful to be applied in farmer level. In order to institutionalize this approach, they recommend using a stepwise procedure, in which it must be initiated by identifying the core problems of the existing extension system and the capacities and then gradually introducing the innovations rather than giving them on the whole. Other issue about local involvement is how to integrate farmers’ innovation into wider existing formal institutional system. Tchawa et al. (2002) assess the Participatory Technology Development in Cameroon, in which they institute that such an innovation may be effectively adopted by the various social actors involved in it, even though it requires difficult learning process difficult at the beginning of the implementation. Taking the case of soil and water conservation, this participatory approach integrating indigenous practices and modern agricultural innovations using the techniques of informal and formal learning (pp. 206-211) However, one study showed that collaboration that involving farmers must be accomplished carefully because of the possibility of social bias. The study of collaborative research-extension plans conducted in Iran indicate that the joint plans, although able to promote collaboration between extension workers and researchers, and extension workers and farmers, the results of this study indicate that such a cooperation plan may be more adaptive to larger-scale farmer segments than the smaller ones. (Movahedi et al., 2007). (pp.304-309Â ¬) Other social segment that should be considered is the young farmers. Auta et al. (2010), in the study of Nigerian youth farmers, argue that the youth needs agricultural trainings as well as more access to agricultural inputs and services to enable them participate in agricultural activities continuously, particularly under scarcity of food availability. Other focal extension issue in developing countries is about partnership among agricultural actors. In the study of cost-sharing scheme, as part of relationship reform between government and farmers extension service, Ozor et al., 2007) found that both farmers and extension workers hold positive perceptions regarding this new partnership scheme; 80.

Analyze the change and continuities in commerce along the Indian Ocean from 650 to1750 C.E. Pgs

Analyze the change and continuities in commerce along the Indian Ocean from 650 to1750 C. E. Pgs. Across the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, from 650- 1750 C. E. , theIndian Ocean trade had many changes and continuities. Economically, the IndianOcean trade stayed the same with its spread of goods from one place to another, but changed because of the ways goods were traded along this trade route. Culturally,the Indian Ocean trade stayed the same because of the same continuous spread of religion and ideas, and changed because of the diffusion of thereligions alreadydominant in places.Politically, the Indian Ocean trade stayed the same in the sensethat it flourished while under the control of strong Analyze the change and continuities in commerce along the Indian Ocean from 650 to1750 C. E. Pgs. Across the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, from 650- 1750 C. E. , theIndian Ocean trade had many changes and continuities. Economically, the IndianOcean trade stayed the same with it s spread of goods from one place to another, but changed because of the ways goods were traded along this trade route.Culturally,the Indian Ocean trade stayed the same because of the same continuous spread of religion and ideas, and changed because of the diffusion of thereligions alreadydominant in places. Politically, the Indian Ocean trade stayed the same in the sensethat it flourished while under the control of strong Analyze the change and continuities in commerce along the Indian Ocean from 650 to1750 C. E. Pgs. Across the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, from 650- 1750 C. E. , theIndian Ocean trade had many changes and continuities.Economically, the IndianOcean trade stayed the same with its spread of goods from one place to another, but changed because of the ways goods were traded along this trade route. Culturally,the Indian Ocean trade stayed the same because of the same continuous spread of religion and ideas, and changed because of the diffusion of thereligions alr eadydominant in places.

Unfortunate Incident At Your Restaurant

Dear manager of Bella NapoliI am writing to you because of an unfortunate incident yesterday at noontime. You see, what happened was that my son and I wanted to enjoy a beverage and maybe something to eat, but we couldn’t get a table. According to your waiter, all tables were reserved. This, I am sure wasn’t the case, as the restaurant was totally empty†¦Therefore I am writing this complaint to you, as I don’t want to be treated that way. I was actually in a good mood but that incompetent waiter practically ruined my day. I was speaking Italy, but the rude waiter apparently did not understand it. Nevertheless, I wanted to point out to you, that one of your waiters had bad manners, and that I find this unacceptable.I – before this incident – had a good impression of your restaurant, but unless I am going to be given a proper and formal apology, this was my last time at your restaurant. Furthermore I will spread the word, this will be very unplea sant for your restaurant and will affect your sales.I hope I have made myself very clear. The formal apology must be given within 14 days or else the word will spread and I will consider legal actions.I look forward to hearing from you soon,Yours faithfullyJohn Collins

Adventures On The Rapids Essays - Rafting, Rapids, Free Essays

Adventures On The Rapids Essays - Rafting, Rapids, Free Essays Adventures On The Rapids Adventures on the Rapids This could be your last meal, my mother jokingly said before we left that day. The day was bright, and the sun gleaming. The group packed into the muggy van, it was stifling hot, and downright uncomfortable. On a hot summer Missouri day, in the middle of July, your shirt clung to your damp skin. The mission: White Water Rafting. The drive to the river, where we would begin our incredible journey, seemed to last endless miles. The humidity was almost unbearable; the van had absolutely no ventilation. Fifteen people packed like sardines, anticipating beginning the trip over the rapids. Envisioning the cool water splashing on our sunburned faces. Fleeing from the van was like jumping from a burning building. Bathing suits on, sunblock applied, strength in tact, we were set. Waiting for the moment when we were able to jump into the raft, and head down stream. Savoring our feet splashing in the chilly water. What we didn't know, was what the day was about to become, and how it could have changed our lives forever. Less than two hours from now, we would know. I was assigned to a raft with my brother, my friend, and the river guide. The adults went in another. About an hour after we left, we made our first stop; an enormous rock midstream. We sat there for several minutes hopped back into the raft and we were on our way, rushing down the river, nearing towards the end. As we approached the last of the rapids, our guide asked if we wanted to surf up them. Surfing is basically paddling up a rapid. We practiced for several minutes, because you have to get used to paddling against the current, then you can go up against a rapid. We were prepared, and ready for the last of the excitement in our adventure on the rapids. Fighting our way up the rapid, it all played out in slow motion. We paddled hard, and so powerfully. I remember it being like a space ship bursting into the sky, or a bomb exploding, when another raft came charging down the rapid, crashing into my side of the raft. I was thrown off the raft, into the bitterly frigid water. All playing back in my head now, even slower I found myself panicking. I realized that my foot had been lodged in between two rocks. As my life is flashing before my eyes, I saw fearful people above the water. I was unbelievably frightened. I heard screams, and yelling from above water. Then I thought to myself, What if I can't see images of my life seconds from now? What if I can't feel terrified? What if I can't see the people just above me? Abruptly, as if I was released from a funnel cloud. I was pushed into the stream. Now I was gliding downstream. My foot was released, my fear calmed, and the images weren't flashing anymore. I was safe.

Wildlife and the Pittman-Robertson Act

Wildlife and the Pittman-Robertson Act The early part of the 20th century was a low point for many wildlife species in North America. Market hunting had decimated shorebird and duck populations. Bison were dangerously close to extinction. Even beavers, Canada geese, whitetail deer, and wild turkeys, all common nowadays, reached very low densities. That period became a pivotal moment in conservation history, as a few conservation pioneers turned concern into action. They are responsible for several key pieces of legislation which became the first North American wildlife protection laws, including the Lacey Act and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. On the heels of that success, in 1937 a new law was enacted to fund wildlife conservation: the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (nicknamed for its sponsors as the Pittman-Robertson Act, or PR Act). The funding mechanism is based on a tax: for every purchase of firearms and ammunition an excise tax of 11% (10% for handguns) is included in the sale price. The excise tax is also collected for the sale of bows, crossbows, and arrows. Who Gets PR Funds? Once collected by the federal government, a small portion of the funds go toward hunter education programs and target shooting range maintenance projects. The rest of the funds are available to individual states for wildlife restoration purposes. In order for a state to collect Pittman-Robertson funds, it must have an agency designated as responsible for wildlife management. Every state has one these days, but this caveat was originally a powerful incentive for states to get serious about taking steps toward wildlife conservation. The amount of funds a state is allocated any given year is based on a formula: half the allocation is in proportion to the state’s total area (therefore, Texas will get more money than Rhode Island), and the other half is based on the number of hunting licenses sold that year in that state. It is because of this fund allocation system that I often encourage non-hunters to purchase a hunting license. Not only do the proceeds of the license sale go to a state agency working hard to manage our natural resources, but your license will help funnel more money from the federal government into your own state and assist in protecting biodiversity. What Are PR Funds Used For? The PR Act allowed the distribution of $760.9 million for the purpose of wildlife restoration in 2014. Since its inception, the Act generated over $8 billion in revenue. In addition to building shooting ranges and providing hunter education, these monies have been used by state agencies to purchase millions of acres of wildlife habitat, conduct habitat restoration projects, and hire wildlife scientists. It is not just game species and hunters who benefit from PR funds, as projects are often focused on non-game species. Plus, most of the visitors of protected state lands come for non-hunting activities like hiking, canoeing, and birding. Â   The program has been so successful that a very similar one was designed for recreational fisheries and enacted in 1950: the Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act, which is often referred to as the Dingell-Johnson Act. Through an excise tax on fishing equipment and motorboats, in 2014 the Dingell-Johnson Act led to the redistribution of $325 million in funding to restore fish habitat. Sources The Wildlife Society. Policy Briefs: Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act. United States Department of the Interior. Press Release, 3/25/2014. Follow Dr. Beaudry: Pinterest | Facebook | Twitter | Google

Service Marketing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Service Marketing - Research Paper Example Marketing challenges are a common issue for all service companies. The major focus of these companies is to highlight intangible or tangible element present within the service aspect. In this research study five different companies will be included belonging to different service sectors. The various service sectors chosen for this study are financial services, telecommunication services, airlines, hospitality and health care services. Financial services are usually provided by finance industry and are regarded as economic services. There is wide range of firms belonging to this industry like banks, insurance companies, real estate funds, credit unions, investment funds, accountancy companies, etc. Air transport services are another well-known service for travelling freight and passengers. Telecommunication service is all about enhancing transfer capabilities of user information through telecommunication systems. On the other hand, health care services are highly responsible for provi ding appropriate health care facilities to patients. Hospitality services are inclined towards providing guests accommodation facilities, travel, food, other amenities, etc. Etisalat is the brand name for Emirates Telecommunications Corporation. The company belongs to the telecommunication industry and was founded in 1976. Etisalat is a well-known telecommunication service provider based in UAE. In current scenario the company operates across 15 countries encompassing Asia, Africa and Middle East. The company is ranked as 12th largest operator of mobile network across the globe. Total customer base of the firm is about 150 million. Services being offered by the company are mobile and fixed line telephony, digital television and internet services. It can be stated that fixed line telephony and digital television is a form of tangible substance being offered by Etisalat. The company has even entered into approximately 150 roaming agreements, expanding across 186

What was the ultimate importance of the Sino-Soviet split in the Essay

What was the ultimate importance of the Sino-Soviet split in the context of the broader Cold War . . . How may the Cold War have played out had this split not occurred - Essay Example t can be posited that had the split not occurred, the Cold War could have gone on for much longer, as the two big socialist countries could have presented a united front against their counterpart democratic, free-capitalist countries like the United States of America, Great Britain, France, and all the other countries belonging to the free world. Some historians assert the real cause of the split was the transfer of nuclear technology (Khoo 19) as Russia feared a nuclear-armed China, unsure what China will do with such a capability. The ultimate importance, significance, and also benefit of the split was an earlier end to the proxy wars between the communist and democratic countries, made the world probably a safer place as it allowed the two sides to reduce their nuclear arsenals. The split could have contributed to the bankruptcy and eventual collapse of the Soviet Union while it also allowed China to pursue another ideological alternative when it concerns its economic policies, which is now capitalist and enabled China to become an economic superpower itself. China is now the worlds second-largest economy with the biggest foreign currency reserves. If the split did not happen, the world could be still in Cold War uncertainties. The split made for a warmer and improved relationship between China and America possible (Arnold & Wiener

Ethical And Social Issues Of The Healthcare Assignment

Ethical And Social Issues Of The Healthcare - Assignment Example From an ethics perspective, there are many in global society that adheres to the principles of deontology, an ideology that states it is the primary obligation of society members to sustain respect and commitment for others while working to effectively promote the well-being of humans (Mack, 1998). Additionally, Hume (2002) offers that it should be a guiding principle, abound of duty, that society should seek to maximize the utility of others, or the pursuit of maximizing one’s satisfaction and the fulfillment of their needs (Roberts, 2011). Furthermore, the United Nations has defined as inalienable protections from degrading or cruel treatment and the right to avoid exploitation by society or government. Individuals in the society that do not have adequate resources to receive adequate healthcare are exposed to cruelty as they are denied treatment and illness prevention services which have implications for sustaining their well-being and even social status. Healthcare should not be limited to individuals who have ample financial capital, which is the primary definition of privilege. Healthcare is a right because, without it, it exploits an individual, leaves a person in a degrading social position, and does not improve their personal utility which is a fundamental obligation of an ethical society. The United Nations, an organization consisting of 193 different member nations, has established a charter indicating a set of universal human rights that should ensure no individual in global society be exploited by society or government (Fomerand, 2009). Individuals who are denied health care are absolutely being exploited, oppressed by capitalistic systems in which the value of money outweighs the value of human life. With the majority of the world adopting the ideology of capitalism, a system in which capital goods and services (namely healthcare) are exchanged for the price (Degen, 2008), many individuals in society are compared to pricing mechanisms which forbid access to important services as a result of sustaining minimal resources.

Source Of Errors In Learning English Language Essay

Source Of Errors In Learning English Language Essay Introduction Errors are integral part of language acquisition. The phenomenon of error has long interested SLA researchers. In a traditional second language teaching situation, they are regarded as the linguistic phenomena deviant from the language rules and standard usages, reflecting learners deficiency in language competence and acquisition device. Many teachers simply correct individual errors as they occur, with little attempt to see patterns of errors or to seek causes in anything other than learner ignorance. Presently, however, with the development of linguistics, applied linguists, psychology and other relevant subjects, peoples attitude toward errors changed greatly. Instead of being problem to be overcome or evils to be eradicated, errors are believed to be evidence of the learners stages in their target language (TL) development. It is through analyzing learner errors that errors are elevated from the statue of undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language lea rning process (Ellis, 1985,p 53) In the field of SLA, there have been three influential approaches to errors with a general movement from approaches emphasizing the product, the error itself, to approaches focusing on the underlying process under which the errors are made. The analysis of error sources has been regarded as a central aspect in the study of learner errors. Researchers believe that the clearer the understanding of the sources of learners errors, the better second language teachers will be able to detect the process of L2 learning. Error Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human beings. But, how do we define error? There are different definitions of the word as Ellis explains learners make errors in both comprehension and production, the first being rather scantly investigated. All learners make errors which have a different name according to the group committing the error. Childrens errors have been seen as transitional forms, the native speakers ones are called slips of the tongue and the second language errors are considered unwanted forms (George 1972). We use the term error to refer to a systematic deviation from a selected norm or set of norms. According to Lennon (1991) an error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakers counterparts. On one hand, it was considered to be a sign of inadequacy of the teaching techniques, something negative which must be avoided, and on the other hand it was seen as a natural result of the fact that since by nature we cant avoid making errors, we should accept the reality and try to deal with them. The error-as-progress conception is based on the Chomskys idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures. So, using this symbolic code, one can have access to different pieces of knowledge not as something mechanically learned but as mentally constructed through try and error. The idea is now that the second language learners form hypotheses about the rules to be formed in the target language and then test them out against input data and modify them accordingly. There is an approach which concerns error as being the result of social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error implicitly carries a social norm as well as cognitive process. The error also carries a social and cultural component which makes it different in different societies. Cultural differences in the error Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from individualistic cultures are prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less of it (Miller, 1984). It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts: Masuda and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japaneses judgments on the target characters facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans; whereas Masuda and Nisbett (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultu res suggest that Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor. Consistently, Morris Peng (1994) found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) as internally rather than externally caused. One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, Markus and Kitayama (1991) mentioned how (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone themselves to individual objects rather than contextual details. in the second language teaching/ learning process the error has always been regarded as one of the most generally known approaches concerning the error throughout human history is to consider it a negative effect or result, even worth to be punished. According to Corder (1967): A learners errors then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using. They are significant in three different ways: first to the teacher, in that they tell him is he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed. Second, they provide the researchers with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third they are indispensible to the learner himself because he can regard the making of errors as a device used in order to learn. The sources of error might be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic or residing in the discourse structures. Richards(1971),when trying to identify the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors: interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other, intralingual errors, subdivided into errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of the rules, or finally due to the false concept hypothesis, which demonstrate the general characteristics of rule learning and third developmental errors when the learner builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience. Assuming a term hierarchy of errors, Burt and Kiparasky (1974) suggest that there is a difference between global and local errors. They say: Global mistakes are those that violate rules involving the overall structure of a sentence, the relations among constituent clauses, or, in a simple sentence, the relations among major constituents. Local mistakes cause trouble in a particular constituent, or in clause of a complex sentence. They claim that global errors are more serious and rank higher in the error hierarchy than local ones, and they should be corrected prior to all others in language classrooms. Accordingly, errors in tense and aspect are regarded as local errors. They may be minor errors, for they may not cause grave breakdowns in communication. However, they are extremely common mistakes among second language learners of English and very much worth investigating since tense and aspect represent one of the most essential parts of English grammar. Corder (1967) goes a step further to propose different terminologies for these two kinds of errors and stresses that we must make a clear distinction between mistakes and errors; the former refers to non-systematic performance errors of chance circumstances, whereas the latter can be defined as the systematic errors of the learner from which we are able to reconstruct his knowledge of the language to date. In the following discussion, the analysis focuses on competence errors: There are two major approaches to analyzing errors committed by a target language learner. Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA). Theoretical base of CA lies in Behaviorist Learning Theory; while the EA is closely related with the emergence of Interlanguage Theory (Ellis, 2005) Behaviorist learning theory accounts of errors: The behaviorist learning theory illustrates the TL learning is a mechanical process of habit formation. Habits entail over-learning, which ensures that learning of new habits as a result of proactive inhibition. Thus, the challenge facing the L2 learner is to overcome the interference of L1 habits. Basing on the habit formation, contrastive analysis sought to identify the features of the L2 that differed from those of the L1 so that learners could be helped to form the new habits of the L2 by practicing them intensively. Most errors made by L2 learners were the result of differences between L1 and L2 structure. (Martin 1996) Interference, the CA insists, is the result of unfamiliarity with the rules of a TL and psychological causes, such as inadequate learning (Swan, 2001). Transfer can be positive or negative: linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning (positive transfer); those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors(negative transfer). Thus difference between the L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results in errors, while the similarities between them facilitate rapid and easy learning (Ellis, 1985 cited Corder). According to behaviorist learning theory, both types of transfer are the outcome of automatic and subconscious use of old habits in new learning situations (Dulay, Burt Krashen) Rod Ellis (1985) assesses, errors, according to the theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. By comparing the L1 with TL, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential errors. The idea of the error as an effect to be avoided has been especially supported by behaviorism, being considered an obstacle to language learning. To them error has been a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure and they believed that when they occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms; that is to say, use of intensive drilling and over-teaching. It was also believed that interference takes place whenever there is a difference between native mother tongue and the target language. A hypothesis based on Lados suggestion in linguistic across cultures where he states in comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease all difficulties in foreign language learning (Lado, 1957) 2. Interlanguage (IL) theory accounts of errors (i) Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: To refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition To refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development To refer to particular L1, L2 combinations. Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are approximate system and transitional competence. (ii) Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, whose errors are caused by several different processes. These include: Borrowing patterns from the mother tongue. Extending patterns from the target language Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known from Richards, Jack et al (1992). (iii)Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target language. Interlanguage is neither the system of target language nor the system of the native language, but instead falls between the two; it is a system based upon the best attempt of learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. By gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. (iv)Rod Ellis (2005, 54) views Error Analysis as being based on emergence of IL theory, that is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in SLA processes. Slinker (1972) tried to find a way to explain the errors that some students make, have nothing to do with their foreign language; for example a Spanish speaker, an Arabic speaker and a Japanese speaker might all make the same mistake in English which was not related to their respective languages. According to Slinker, L2 learners go through a process of making and testing hypotheses about the target language. They begin with knowledge about language in general, gained from their native language, and move toward the target language. Bit by bit, they readjust their mental model of the new language, improving their communicative competency in that language. Successful hypotheses become mental constructions that correspond to the rules of the new language. Brown(1993) viewed ,truly successful students make the journ ey to a high level of competency in the target language, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the IL continuum. For around 35 years Selinker has viewed learners errors as evidence of positive efforts by the learner to learn a new language. This view of language learning allowed for the possibilities of learners making deliberate attempts to control their own learning and, along with theories of cognitive processes in language learning. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. A modern definition of language transfer is provided by Slinker (1992): language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each of which has to do with CLI (Cross Linguistic Influence), the influence and use of prior linguistic knowledge, usually but exclusively native language knowledge. Selinker (1992) pointed two highly significant con tributions that Corder made: that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are not random, but are in fact systematic and are not negative or interfering in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. In 1994 Gass and Slinker defined errors as red flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language. The learners developing knowledge of second language may have characteristics of the learners native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system. Interlanguage Is systematic, because the learner selects the rul es systematically, learners bases plans on the rule system, in the same way as the native speaker bases on the internalized knowledge of L1 system. (iv)One of the crucial contributions of IL was its underlying assumption that the learners knowledge is integrated and systematically reorganized with previous knowledge of the native language. By a gradual process of trial-and-error or hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer approximations to the system used by the native speaker of the language. The characteristics of IL are described by many researchers as follows: Permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learners knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment(Ellis1985:50) Dynamic, in the sense that L2 learner slowly revises their variable interim systems to accommodate new hypothesis about the TL system. Systematic, in that L2 learners IL is rule-governed, that is, the learner bases his performance plans on his existing rule system much the same way as the native speaker bases his plans on his internalized knowledge of the L1 system. The variable shape of interlanguage The concept of interlanguage has had a major impact on the field of second language acquisition, studies on interlanguage focus on the linguistic and psychological aspects of second language acquisition research. I will first outline how the interlanguage assumption developed .since the interlanguage concept is not only important for the development of the students grammar system; I will then explore how it applies to other components of language. I will also focus on the consequences of the concept for the teacher and his work in the classroom. Before the 1960s language was not considered to be a mental phenomenon. Like other forms of human behavior language is learnt by processes of habit formation. A child learns his mother tongue by imitating the sounds and patterns he hears around him. By approval or disapproval, adults reinforce the childs attempts and lead the efforts to the correct forms. Under the influence of cognitive linguists this explanation of first language acquisitio n was criticized. Language cant be verbal behavior only since children are able to produce an infinite number of utterances that have never heard before. This creativity is only possible because a child develops a system of rules. A large number of studies have shown that children actually do construct their own rule system, which develops gradually until it corresponds to the system of the adults. There is also evidence that they pass through similar stages acquiring grammatical rules. Through the influence of cognitive linguists and first language acquisition research the notion developed that second language learners, too, could be viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and that they gradually adapt these rules in the direction of the target language. However wrong and inappropriate learners own language system, they are grammatical in their own terms, since they are a product of the learners own language system. This system gradually develops toward t he rule-system of the target language. The various shapes of the learners language competence are called interlanguage. This draws to the fact that the learners language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Therefore, errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. While the behaviorist approach led to teaching methods which use drills and consider errors as signs of failure, the concept of interlanguage liberated language teaching and paved the way for communicative teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of the students temporary language system and therefore a natural part of the learning process, teachers could now use teaching activities which did not call for constant supervision of the students language. Group work and pair work became suitable means for language learning. A brief review of approaches to analyses of errors Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive analysis is an approach generated from behaviorist learning theory. Through CA applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first and second languages to predict errors. The basic concept behind CA was that a structural picture of any language could be constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. (Corder , 1983). CA stresses the influence of mother tongue in learning a second language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that L2 would be affected by L1. Here, language is taken as a set of habits and learning as the establishment of new habits, a view sprung from behaviorism, under which langu age is essentially a system of habits. In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2 learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive transfer. Contrastively, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in the L2 and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1. CA places the environment as the predominant factor in SLA, while learners are believed to play only a passive role in accepting the impositions of the environment. We must not forget that there are numbers of errors made by language learners seem to be unrelated to the learners na tive language. According to SLA researchers non-interference errors were more pervasive in learner performance than CA were ready to recognize. Dulay and Burt (1973) studied the errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English as an L2 and claimed that all of the learners errors had collected, 85% were developmental (non-interference), 12% were unique and only 3% were results of L1 interference. Primary tenets of CA are: Prime cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learners native language. Difficulties are chiefly due to differences between the two languages The greater the difference s, the more acute the learning difficulties will be The results of a comparison between the two languages are needed to predict th e difficulties and errors which will occur in learning the target language What needs to be taught is discovered by comparing the languages and subtracting what is common to them. (Corder, 1981) 3. Error analysis (EA) It is defined as the study of linguistics ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they attempt to cope with their ignorance, by James (2001).Error analysis was first introduced by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) who have claimed that foreign or second language learners errors could be predicted on the basis of the differences between the learners native and second languages. They have also suggested that where the aspects of the target language are similar to those of the learners native language, learning will be easy; otherwise, it will be difficult and second language learners are expected to make errors .The field of error analysis in SLA was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues. A widely-available survey can be found in chapter 8 of Brown (2000). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first an d second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. This is the examination of those errors committed by students in both the spoken and written medium. Corder, who has contributed enormously to EA, writes this: The study of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. In this respect it resembles methodologically the study of the acquisition of the mother tongue. It provides us with a picture of the linguistic development of a learner and may give us indications as the learning process. Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. Corder(1967) made use of Chomskys the competence versus performance distinction by associating errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performance. In his view, a mistake occurs as the results of processing limitations rather than lack of competence. It signifies L2 learners failure of utilizing their knowledge of a TL rule. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be cl assified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent. From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology. EA emphasizes on the significance of errors in learners IL system, Brown (1994) may be, carried out directly for pedagogic purposes. Carl James (1998) viewed, EA developed out of the belief that errors indicate the learners stage of language learning and acquisition.th learner is seen as an active participant in the development of hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language just as a young child learning the first language. Errors are considered to be evidence of the learners strategy as he or she builds competence in the target language. These errors are defined as global which inhibit understanding and local which do not interfere with communication. Error analysis has been criticized as being an inefficient tool for studying the way second language learners develop their target language. It is argued that error analysis deals with the learners productive competence rather than the receptive one, and it is also an imperfect instrument for categorizing errors and explaining them. In the book Error and Interlanguage written by Pit Corder, he stated that various classifications of these error systems have been developed by error analysis researchers, three of which can be helpful for the teacher and are as follows. Pre-systematic; errors occur before the language learner has realized any system for classifying items being learned; the learner can neither correct nor explain this type of error. Systematic; errors occur after the learner has noticed a system and error consistently occurs; learner can explain but not correct the error. This classification relies on three major groups: (1) interference errors; (2) intralingual errors; (3)development errors. Interference errors are caused by the influence of the native language, in presumably those areas where the languages differ markedly. Intralingual errors originate with the structure to TL itself. The complexity of language encourages over-generalization, incomplete application of rules, and the failure to learn conditions for rule application. Development errors reflect the students attempt to make hypotheses about the language from the native language. Post-systematic; errors occur when learner is consistent in his or her recognition of systems; can explain and correct the error. The following steps are distinguished in conducting an EA: collection of a sample of learner language; identification of errors; explanation of errors; error evaluation (Ellis cited in 2005) Richards (1971) focused on the intralingual and developmental errors observed in the acquisition of English as a second language and further classified them into four categories: (i) Overgeneralization; covering instances where the learners create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structure of the TL. (ii)Ignorance of the rule restriction, occurring as a result of failure to observe the restrictions or existing structures (iii) Incomplete application of rules, arising when the learners fail to fully develop a certain structure required to produce acceptable sentences (iv) False concepts hypothesized, deriving from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL. from the analyses of errors to the practice of error correction We know that in traditional classroom instruction is laid on accuracy, errors frequently corrected because the teacher thinks the error as a thorn in his/her flesh. Yet with the understanding of IL theory, the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in language learning and in fact reflect the modes of learners developing system. What are the sources and causes of Errors? The following factors are identified as the source and causes of Errors Mother tongue interference Wilkins (1972) observes: When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar-in that case we get positive transfer or facilitation- or may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different- in that case we get negative transfer- or interference. Loan Words

Alcohol :: Free Essays

Alcohol Alcohol is a drug which is used by any age and any ethnic background, it can have serious effects but not many of us realize this. Some people drink a lot and become addicted to it, the alcohol effects part of the brain which controls all the decision making, the outcome of this is loss of inhibitions. It affects the physical side which causes blurred vision and loss of balance. Drinking large amounts of alcohol at once is known as binge drinking, this has serious effects such as unconsciousness, coma and death. As you may realize by now alcohol can be a very dangerous drug but only if you take more than the recommended amount which is: Men - should drink no more than 21 units of alcohol per week and no more than four units in any one day. Women - should drink no more than 14 units of alcohol per week and no more than three units in any one day. If you take more than the recommended amount and drink every so often this will lead to physical damage, the effects of this are, increasing the possibility of catching diseases and making other diseases worse. Excessive drinking is related with loss of brain cells, liver failure, stomach ulcers, certain types of cancer, nerve damage, heart failure and epilepsy. Even though alcohol is used to make people feel relaxed, excessive drinking over a long period of time increases anxiety and causes depression. It also affects problems with sleeping, mood swings, violence and suicide. If you personally drink a lot and would like to stop, it may help if you keep a diary which records how much alcohol you drink every day, also if you could set yourself a target of how much you are allowed to

Compare and contrast 2 treatments of crime. (TEP’s and AMP’s Token economy program and anger management program. Essay

Token economy programmes are a form of behaviour modification based on the principles of operant conditioning. They are used in prisons to encourage the reduction of anti-social behaviour and criminal behaviour; they involve awarding tokens to offenders if a desired behaviour is performed. The tokens may then be exchanged for various rewards. The aim is for the desired behaviour to be repeated. As a treatment it involves setting out a range of desirable behaviours and reinforcing the offender whenever the behaviour is displayed. This behaviour would focus upon non-aggressive, these behaviours are expected that the behaviour will become learned and automatic. Positive reinforces come in the shape of tokens—a secondary reinforcement, which can be exchanged for primary reinforcement. Negative reinforcement comes with the threat of removal of tokens and prisoners change their behaviour to avoid this consequence. A token economy system uses operant conditioning to gradually changing behaviour through primary and secondary renforcements. Anger management is another treatment aimed to prevent crime. It is used in prisons, and participants may participate voluntarily or as part of their sentence. This is used identify triggers which may cause there aggression. By preventing aggression, the likelihood of crimes being committed is reduced. The treatment usually takes place in group settings and occurs about twice a week. A trained person runs the group. They are usually asked what factors make them feel angry and thus trigger aggression. Once this trigger has been identified, strategies can be taught which to condole and reduce the anger they experiences. An anger management programme will be based around 3 key stages; cognitive preparation (analysing past aggression and discovering patterns, and the offender also looks at the consequences of aggression), skills acquisition (where they are taught techniques that help them to manage their response to triggers in a more productive way.) and application practice (the offender to test their skills in a range of situations). Token economy works because the behaviour of the offender is being constantly monitored and recorded in order to award the tokens, and then becomes habit. However it is limited to institutions like a prison for this token economy to work because they will not get such awards in the ‘real world’ but it is the plan that due to what is shown by operant conditioning these desired  behaviours may/can become a habit and thus behaviour is repeated. Anger management can also have a similar problem, it may be easier to control your anger and follow the program while in the group but in the ‘real world’ it may be harder to follow or perform the behaviours that are learnt from the program. Even though this may happen for anger management there is still very effective, the offenders take part voluntarily. This increases the programme’s effectiveness, as offenders who take part voluntarily are usually more committed to the programme’s success. This is in contrast to other treatments, such as token economy, which are often enforced over an entire prison system meaning that it may not be successful in all cases. But not all anger management is voluntary some people have to take part as part of their sentence. This provides an ulterior motive and although the offender may appear to have made progress, this could be false and the issue of anger is not actually being addressed (demand characteristics). This means that anger management like token economy may not be effective for everyone. Another problem you may find in anger management is by doing the course they may be singled out (especially in prisons) and by singling out prisoners to show they are doing this program may cause prisoners not to take it seriously or may not consider taking it voluntary, or may take it for other motives e.g. some times taking the course can help your bid to get erlyer or longer parole periods. Token economy on the other hand dose not single out specific prisoners as all prisoners have to take part in the programme, no single prisoner can have an ulterior motive for participating. However anger management is supported by Ireland (2000). They compared 50 young offenders on an anger management programme with 37 on the waiting list for anger management. Before and after treatment scores were taken on level of aggression shown (as reported by prison officers and by the prisoners themselves through self-report). 92% of the treatment group showed some drop in aggression with 48% showing major decreases. 8% showed deterioration. This evidence shows strong support of anger management programmes as a way to control aggression in prison. Hobbs and Holt (1976) measured the effect of token economy on a sample of young delinquents across 3 institutions  (with one other institution being used as a comparison[control group]). Tokens were awarded to those in the experimental groups whenever target behaviour was displayed. These were swapped for primary reinforces. There was a significant (28%) increase in the target behaviours in the experimental groups compared to the controls. This shows that the token economy was an effective and cost effective (less than $8 per month per boy) way to control the behaviour of criminals whilst in prison. By comparing the results it would seem that anger management may be more effective as a way to treat crime but the numbers of people who participated was far less so Hobbs and Holt may have less success rate due to the larger groups meaning that the result may be more valid due to it being easer to apply to the prison population.